Xuanzang

Xuan Zang02

The works of Xuanzang (602 – 664) have provided invaluable insight into ancient civilizations and have been used by historians, geographers, philosophers, and archaeologists across the globe. Xuanzang was a monk, traveller, writer, historian, and translator, and somehow managed to succeed in every venture he put his mind to. His 16 year pilgrimage to India allowed him to collect hundreds of priceless artefacts, which he brought back to China to further the study of Buddhism. If it was not for his tireless efforts, many of the Buddhist texts and much of the information about ancient civilizations that we have today would have been lost.

Early Life

Xuanzang was born around about 602 A.D., in Goushi Town, Luozhou (near modern-day Luoyang, Henan), and was given the name Chen Hui. He was the youngest of four children and came from a long line of prestigious academics. His great-grandfather, Chen Qin, had served as the Prefect of Shangdang (modern-day Changzhi, Shanxi). His grandfather, Chen Kang, had been a professor at Taixue (the Imperial Academy). And his father, Chen Hui, was a conservative Confucian who served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui Dynasty.

Like his siblings, from an early age Xuanzang was educated by his father, who introduced him to the principles of Confucianism. He began observing Confucian rituals at the age of eight. Many of his family members were impressed with his early development and genius-level intellect.

Conversion to Buddhism

Although Xuanzang’s household was essentially Confucian, his older brother Chen Su was a Buddhist monk. Xuanzang expressed great interest in Buddhism and, when his father died in 611, he made the decision to live in Jingtu Monastery with his brother. He studied there for five years and, at the age of thirteen, he was ordained as a śrāmaṇera (novice monk).

In 618, both Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang’an (modern-day Xi’an) to escape the unrest caused by the fall of the Sui Dynasty, and made their way to Chengdu, Sichuan, where they studied in Kong Hui Monastery. It was in this monastery that Xuanzang was ordained as a bhikṣu (full monk) at the age of twenty. In 622 he returned to Chang’an to study foreign languages and, in 626, he began learning Sanskrit. He chose to do this mainly because he was confused by the discrepancies in the Buddhist texts he had read and wanted to learn to translate the originals himself.

Pilgrimage

While studying in Chang’an, Xuanzang supposedly had a dream that indicated he should travel to India. It was this, coupled with his belief that the Buddhist texts available in China were insufficient, that convinced him to start his pilgrimage. However, at that time Emperor Taizong had prohibited foreign travel because of China’s war with the Göktürks[1], so in 629 Xuanzang slipped through the Yumen Pass under cover of darkness and made the dangerous journey across the Gobi Desert.

xuan zang01He eventually arrived in Liangzhou (modern-day Gansu province), which was the starting-point of the Silk Road trade route that connected China with Central Asia. He spent approximately a month preaching in Liangzhou before he was invited to Hami (modern-day Hami City, Xinjiang) by King Qu Wentai, who was a pious Buddhist of Chinese descent. However, it soon became apparent to Xuanzang that King Qu Wentai had ulterior motives. He planned to detain Xuanzang and make him the ecclesiastical head of his Court. Xuanzang went on a hunger strike until the King relented and allowed him to leave.

As a show of good faith, King Qu Wentai provided Xuanzang with introductions to all of the kings on his itinerary and also gave him sufficient supplies for his journey, without which Xuanzang’s pilgrimage may never have happened. By this point Xuanzang had achieved the reputation of an accredited scholar in China. In 630, Xuanzang embarked on a pilgrimage that would last just over 16 years. He visited many monasteries and religious sites on his journey, including the site where Buddha supposedly descended from heaven in Sankasya[2], his birthplace in Kapilavastu (southern Nepal), and the site of his death in Kusinagara (eastern India).

The most momentous stop on his journey was at the Nalanda Monastery, the most prestigious academic establishment in India at the time, which was located southwest of modern-day Bihar city. Nalanda consisted of some ten huge temples and, at that time, housed over ten thousand monks. According to legend, Silabhadra (529-645), the abbot of Nalanda, had considered committing suicide after years of suffering from illness when he was supposedly visited by deities in a dream. They commanded him to await the arrival of a Chinese monk who they claimed would spread the Mahayana[3] tradition across the world.

xuanzang03Silabhadra believed Xuanzang’s arrival fulfilled this prophecy and made Xuanzang his disciple. Under Silabhadra’s guidance, Xuanzang furthered his study of the Yogācāra branch of Buddhism. Yogācāra Buddhism is also called the Idealistic School. The central concept of this school is borrowed from a statement by the monk Vasubandhu, who said: “All this world is ideation only”. The basic concept of Yogācāra Buddhism is that the external world is merely a fabrication of our consciousness and does not actually exist, it is our internal ideas and past experiences that form what we perceive to be the outer world. The “real” world is simply our consciousness, so it is also sometimes referred to as the Consciousness Only branch of Buddhism.

On leaving Nalanda, Xuanzang continued his pilgrimage until sometime between 643 and 644, when he decided to return to China. In 645 he finally arrived back in Chang’an and a great procession welcomed his return. He was immediately offered a ministerial position by Emperor Taizong but politely declined.

Religious Works

Xuanzang returned to China with seven statues of Buddha, over a hundred Buddhist relics and over 600 Buddhist texts. It was his aim to translate as many of these texts as he could so, with the support of the Emperor, he eventually masterminded the construction of the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda in Da Ci’en Temple, where he translated these works with the help of his fellow monks. In his lifetime, he was only able to translate about 75 of these texts into Chinese, which numbered about 1,300 sutras[4].

As a translator, Xuanzang wanted to present Buddhist texts to the Chinese in their entirety and so became well-known for his unabridged translations. When several of the original Indian scriptures were lost, his precise translations of them survived, meaning they have been preserved for posterity. An example of this is his translation of the Heart Sutra, which is the standard translation used by Buddhists today.

He also founded the Faxiang School of Buddhism based on his studies. During his lifetime, the school celebrated great popularity. Tragically, after his death, its popularity gradually declined but its teachings on consciousness, Karma, and other Buddhist principles were passed on to other, more successful schools, such as the Hossō School, which was one of the most influential Buddhist schools in Japan.

Literary Works

With the help of the monk Bianji, Xuanzang wrote one of the most famous literary works of the Tang Dynasty: Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang Dynasty. It is sometimes referred to as Pilgrim to the West in the Tang Dynasty and Great Tang Records on the Western Regions. This novel is an invaluable academic resource because it records the geography, people, customs, history, religions, languages and cultures of about 140 countries that Xuanzang visited.

xuanzang04His travelogue inspired the famous Chinese epic Journey to the West by Wu Cheng’en. This novel was written in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty, around nine centuries after Xuanzang’s death. It is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of China. Outside of China, the abridged translation version Monkey by Arthur Waley is more well-known. In the novel, Xuanzhang is the reincarnation of the Golden Cicada, an original disciple of Buddha, and is protected on his pilgrimage by three supernatural beings, the most famous of which is the Monkey King.

During the Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang was considered such a significant figure that, after his death, Emperor Gaozong cancelled all imperial audiences for three days in order to grieve. He was a pivotal figure in the development of Buddhist theory and his travelogues have given modern historians invaluable information about ethnic peoples and countries that have long been extinct. Modest and pious though he was, Xuanzang has arguably had a more powerful international impact than most emperors.

[1] Göktürks: A now extinct nomadic group of people, sometimes known as the Türks or the Ashina/Açina Turks, who were of Turkic descent and came from medieval Inner Asia.

[2] Sankasya: An ancient city in India that has since disappeared. It is sometimes known as Sankassa, Sankasia or Sankissa.

[3] Mahayana: One of the branches of Buddhism.

[4] Sutra: One of the sermons of the historical Buddha

Dong Oil Tea

dong oil tea 01

Oil tea is the traditional drink of the Dong ethnic minority. In Chinese it is referred to as yaucha or youcha (油茶), which literally means “oil tea”. It is consumed on a daily basis by Dong people, usually as part of their breakfast, but also plays a focal role in festivals and ceremonies, particularly the guest welcoming ceremony. It is perhaps better described as a “tea soup”, since it is thicker than normal tea and contains solid ingredients, such as peanuts. Oil tea comes in many different varieties, including lima-bean tea, red pea tea and white pea tea, although the basic components of the tea remain relatively unchanged.

Firstly, tea seeds are pressed to make what is called tea oil. Although these tea seeds are harvested from tea trees, they do not come from the same species of tea tree as the tea leaves used in the oil tea. Sticky or glutinous rice is cooked so that it is lovely and soft, and then dried out in the sun. After it has dried completely, it is fried in the tea oil until the rice grains puff up like popcorn. Additional ingredients, such as peanuts and soybeans, are then stir-fried. Finally, black or green tea leaves are quickly fried in the hot tea oil until they are crisp. The puffed rice, tea leaves and additional ingredients are added to individual bowls. Before the hot water is poured into the bowl, the host will normally add some extra ingredients to enhance the flavour of the tea, such as pork offal, chopped pork liver, green onions, chopped garlic leaves and salt.

dong oil tea 02The ritual surrounding the oil tea is particularly fascinating. Each guest will be presented with a bowl full of the aforementioned ingredients and one chopstick. It is said that Dong women can eat any snack using just one chopstick without piercing the food itself. In this instance, the chopstick is there primarily to indicate when you are done drinking the tea and not as a tool for drinking it. Hot water is then poured into the bowls and the tea is left to steep. Only women will serve the tea and the first bowl is always served to the oldest member of the family or the guest, following thereafter from oldest to youngest. However, out of politeness you should not start drinking the tea until everyone has been served and the hostess indicates you may begin drinking by saying “please”. As a sign of respect, every guest should drink at least three bowls of tea. The first three to four bowls of tea are usually salty, followed by a sweet tea. Once you have drank your fill, you must place the chopstick across your bowl to indicate that you are finished, otherwise the hostess will continue filling your bowl until you are ready to burst!

Oil tea is traditionally served with an array of snacks, including batter-fried fish, pickled vegetables, nuts, and fried corn. One could even say that the oil tea ceremony in Dong culture is like a Chinese version of afternoon tea in England! If you happen to be traveling through a Dong village, some friendly villager will undoubtedly invite you in for a bowl of oil tea. Although it is vastly different from the black tea that we are accustomed to, it is none-the-less healthy, tantalisingly aromatic and unexpectedly delicious. Once you catch the scent of the crispy tea leaves and the steaming bowls of rich, oily tea, we’re sure you’ll want to have a bowl!

Zhenyuan Ancient Town

The history of Zhenyuan Ancient Town stretches back over 2,000 years. It is located on the eastern edge of the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau and is sheltered in the lush, green mountains of Guizhou. Zhenyuan was instated as a county in 202 B.C. by Emperor Gaozu and has remained an important part of Guizhou’s history ever since. However, as a tourist attraction, it has yet to receive the accolades that it deserves. It is a melting pot of Dong, Miao and Han ethnicities, meaning its architecture exhibits features and styles from many different cultures. It is home to a stunning sequence of temples known as Qilong or Black Dragon Cave and boasts the finest section of the Wuyang River, yet few tourists outside of Guizhou visit Zhenyuan or even know of its existence. Zhenyuan is a pearl hidden within the mountains; an “Oriental Venice”.

The town is relatively small and only covers approximately 3 square kilometres (about 1.2 square miles). It was once one of the major transport and trade hubs in Guizhou, as it was easily accessed via the Wuyang River. The river itself winds through the town and splits it in half, effectively dividing it into two parts. The south part of the town is called “Old Wei Town”, with “wei” meaning “fortification”, and the north part of the town is called “Old Fu Town”, with the “fu” meaning “government”. Zhenyuan is a water town, with many boats still traversing its water, and thus has earned the name the “Oriental Venice”. It is also one of the best places to celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival, which takes place on May 25th according to the Chinese lunar calendar. They hold a dragon boat race on the Wuyang River every year, where long, elaborately decorated dragon boats are paddled to the beat of a large drum and race one another down the crystal clear river.

Black Dragon Cave (Qilong Cave)

Black Dragon Cave’s name can be quite misleading, as it is not actually a cave at all. It is a complex of ancient temples that slowly climb their way up the side of Zhonghe Mountain, just to the east of Zhenyuan Ancient Town. The temple complex covers a monumental area of about 21,000 square metres (approximately 220,000 square feet). The temples were built during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and have managed to outlast two wars without sustaining much damage. They have been renovated since, but still maintain a lot of their original features and character.

The complex is made up of temples dedicated to Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism and, since all of the buildings adhere to the architectural styles of their respective religions, the complex is a myriad of elaborate styles and designs that make it relatively unique amongst temples in China. The complex encompasses a few, particularly attractive sites such as Zhusheng Bridge, Zhongyuan Temple, Ziyang Shuyuan or the Academy of Classical Learning, the Longevity Palace, and Yuhuang Ge or the Jade Emperor Pavilion. The temple complex is said to appear like a beautiful stone garden clinging to the mountainside of Mount Zhonghe.

The National Wuyang Scenic Area

The Wuyang River flows 95 kilometres (59 miles) through the Miaoling Mountains, all the way from Huangping to Zhenyuan, and eventually joins the Yuanjing River in Hunan province. Three distinct scenic spots in Zhenyuan, Shibing and Huangping counties, known as the National Wuyang Scenic Area, have become famous tourist attractions, of which the scenic area in Zhenyuan is considered to be the most beautiful. Visitors can either walk along the river or take a relaxing, scenic cruise. Traveling downstream, the towering peaks and glittering clear waters will undoubtedly make you feel at peace and provide the perfect opportunity for some nature photography. As you traverse the Wuyang River, you’ll come across various scenic spots that have been given fanciful names based on their appearance or on legends related to that spot.

The Wuyang Three Gorges are the most magnificent section of this scenic area. This is a 35-kilometre waterway that is made up of the Dragon King Gorge, the East Gorge and the West Gorge. Amongst these three gorges you’ll find powerful waterfalls crashing into the river, mysterious caves, the gentle gurgling of springs and the jagged figures of rocks emerging from the karst mountainsides. It is truly breath-taking to witness and we strongly recommend you take advantage of one of the local cruises in order to make the most of this scenic spot. It is said to be as spectacular as the Yangtze River Three Gorges and as mystical as the Li River in Guilin.

On top of Black Dragon Cave and Wuyang Scenic Area, Zhenyuan is also home to an unlikely scenic spot of great historical significance. At the northwest edge of the town, you’ll find Shiping Mountain, which acts as the entrance to one of the southernmost sections of the Great Wall. Unlike the Badaling section of the Great Wall in Beijing, this 3-kilometre stretch of the Great Wall has not been renovated and is largely in ruins but is none-the-less beautiful. It was built during the late Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) and from its perch on Mount Shiping it provides a breath-taking view of the surrounding countryside.

Compared to most small towns in Guizhou, Zhenyuan is relatively easy to get to. There are direct trains from Guiyang to Zhenyuan that take about 4 to 5 hours and from there the ancient part of the town is about a 10 minute drive from the train station. There are also regular trains from Kaili City to Zhenyuan, which only take about 2 hours, and also a few long haul buses from Kaili to Zhenyuan. Once you’re in Zhenyuan, there are plenty of guesthouses on the waterfront that are reasonably priced and offer a wonderful view of the Wuyang River.

Maotai Liquor

茅台

 

Maotai liquor is the drink of choice for Chinese politicians, celebrities and wealthy businessmen alike. It supposedly ranks as one of the three most well-known spirits in the world, together with whisky and cognac. Yet outside of China, few people know much about it and even fewer have sampled it. So what exactly is Maotai liquor? And how does it rank among more familiar spirits from other countries?

Maotai, also known by the brand’s original Romanization of Moutai, is a type of baijiu that is distilled from sorghum. Baijiu, which literally means “white alcohol” or “white liquor” in Chinese, is a clear, strong liquor that is usually distilled from sorghum. In the South of China it is sometimes made from glutinous rice and in the North it can be made from wheat, barley or millet. Different brands of baijiu vary from 40% to 60% alcohol by volume, although Maotai ranges from the standard 53% through to 35% proof. Baijiu is similar to vodka in terms of its texture, strength and appearance, but is said to have a sweeter taste. Maotai is often described as a “sauce-scented” or “sauce-fragranced” liquor because it carries the faint aroma of soy sauce, which makes it unique amongst other brands of baijiu.

Maotai is produced exclusively in the town of Maotai, near the city of Renhuai in southwest Guizhou. It is believed that the climate and locally grown sorghum in the town is what gives the liquor its distinctive flavour. Attempts have been made to produce Maotai elsewhere but nowhere else has managed to replicate its unique taste. Apparently the process of making the liquor creates such a pungent odour that the entire town of Maotai is said to smell like fermenting sorghum. The town began manufacturing the liquor on a large scale during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). It was the first liquor in China to be mass-produced and during the Qing Dynasty it had an annual output of about 170 tonnes. In 1951, two years after the People’s Republic of China was founded, it was named China’s national liquor. By the 21st century, it had become so popular that more than 6,800 tonnes of Maotai was sold in 2007 alone.

Its first international acknowledgement came during the 1915 Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, where it won a gold medal. At the 1985 and 1986 Paris International Exposition, it won two consecutive gold medals. Since the Cultural Revolution, it has won 14 international awards and 20 domestic awards.

Due to its popularity and international recognition, it is frequently used on official occasions in China, particularly when foreign politicians or distinguished foreign guests visit China. It is the only alcoholic beverage that is deemed worthy to be presented as an official gift to foreign countries by Chinese embassies. It received the greatest exposure during the state banquet that was held for U.S. president Richard Nixon in 1972. At this banquet, the Chinese politician Zhou Enlai offered the liquor to Nixon and, ignoring the advice of his associates, Nixon engaged in toast with Zhou and drank the liquor. Although it is not so widely available outside of China, currently about 200 tonnes of Maotai is sold annually to over 100 countries across the world and its international popularity is slowly growing.

With all of these accolades and international publicity, it’s surprising that the Maotai brand is still relatively unknown outside of China. This is in part due to the fact that Maotai, and baijiu in general, is considered almost universally unpalatable to foreigners. It’s a real love or hate type of drink, with some people relishing it as a deliciously sweet and spicy alternative to vodka and others, like American journalist Dan Rather, describing it as being like “liquid razor blades”. The only way to truly know whether it’s for you or not is to take a trip to Maotai and give it a try!

Yangshuo

Yangshuo is a small town tucked away in the Karst Mountains of Guangxi, yet it has become something of an anomaly in China. By ratio, Yangshuo boasts one of the largest populations of English speaking Chinese people and foreign expats in the whole country. As a matter of fact, some locals say it even rivals Beijing and Shanghai as an international hub. Nestled amongst the verdant mountains and beside the rippling waters of the Li River, Yangshuo is undoubtedly one of the most beautiful places in Guangxi. It is an ideal place to start any tour of China, since the abundance of English speakers and balanced mixture of Western and Eastern influences makes it an easy introduction to the country.

The name “Yangshuo” derives from the Chinese words “yang” (阳) and “shuo” (朔). “Yang” is the well-known antagonist to “yin” in Taoist philosophy and symbolises positivity, masculinity and light. “Shuo” means “new moon” in Chinese, so the implication is that, night or day, Yangshuo is one of the brightest places on earth. Considering how modern Yangshuo has become, the town has a history that stretches back over 1,000 years. It was founded in 265 A.D., during the Jin Dynasty (265-420), and in 590, during the Sui Dynasty (581-618), the county seat was moved from Xingping to Yangshuo. It has remained the county town ever since, although it is still under the administrative control of Guilin city.

On top of the resident expat population, there is also a substantial constituency of native ethnic minorities, such as the Yao, Hui, Zhuang, and Miao people. This ethnic diversity means that the souvenirs, performances and cuisine on offer in Yangshuo are particularly varied. Stalls featuring Tibetan silver, Dong embroidered cloth, and Miao batik abound throughout the streets of Yangshuo. These little handcrafted trinkets make perfect souvenirs or mementos. There are two main tourist streets, known as West Street and Diecuilu, and they boast the majority of the souvenir stalls. Since the town is located deep within the countryside, there are also numerous fruit and vegetable farms in the vicinity. As you walk down the streets of Yangshuo, you’ll be met with a plethora of fresh fruits you may have never tried before, such as mouth-watering mangosteens, dubious smelling durian, and tantalising persimmons.

Yangshuo was first put on the map by Lonely Island in 1980 when they featured it in their travel guide. Since then, it has remained incredibly popular with foreign and domestic tourists alike. The landscape in Yangshuo has become so popular that it even featured in the movie Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith as Chewbacca’s home planet of Kashyyyk and also featured as a level in the landmark 1993 video game Doom. The image of the Li River on the 20 yuan note is also very close to Yangshuo and so, if you don’t fancy taking the long cruise from Guilin to Yangshuo, travelling directly to Yangshuo to visit the site is far quicker.

Not only is Yangshuo a perfect place to tour the Karst Mountains and the Li River, it is also a popular cycling and rock-climbing destination. As few public buses travel into the countryside, cycling is the ideal method of exploring Yangshuo County and visiting several of the tourist attractions, such as Moon Hill and Big Banyan. You can hire mountain bikes in the town centre for between 20 to 70 yuan (£2 to £7) per day depending on the condition of the bicycle. If you opt for one of the cheaper bicycles, we recommend you check the brakes and suspension before you agree to rent it.

In 1992, American rock climber Todd Skinner first popularised Yangshuo when he pioneered a number of the now established climbing routes, including the “Moonwalker” on the arch of Moon Hill. Nowadays there are plenty of tourist services in Yangshuo that focus exclusively on rock climbing and, with over 200 climbing routes in the vicinity, you’ll be spoilt for choice! Low Mountain, Twin Gates, Baby Frog, The Egg, Bamboo Grove and Wine Bottle Cliff are just a few examples of the scenic climbing spots on offer.

Thanks to the Western expats now living in Yangshuo, the town boasts a variety of Western-style restaurants, cafés and bars that you won’t find in other Chinese towns. The food on offer in most of these restaurants is of a good standard and can provide a much needed rest from Chinese food if you’ve been travelling around the country for too long. Although most places close around 2am, Yangshuo boasts some of the most exciting nightlife in Guangxi. Many hostels will have their own bars and, coupled with the established bars and nightclubs in the town, this makes for a lively and unique atmosphere in the evenings. These hostel bars provide a wonderful opportunity to meet other travellers and backpackers on your journey.

Since the town has been geared up for tourism, there are plenty of hostels and hotels in Yangshuo. Prices and standards can range greatly between them, so we recommend doing some research before you book one. In spite of its popularity with foreign tourists, Yangshuo is not the easiest place to get to. There is no airport or train station in Yangshuo, so you must travel there either by bus or by boat. A boat cruise from Guilin to Yangshuo can take upwards of 4 to 5 hours and is quite expensive, but is worth it for the spectacular views along the Li River. Otherwise, express buses run from Guilin Bus Station to Yangshuo every 10 to 20 minutes and take just under an hour. There are also buses running from Guilin Train Station to Yangshuo every 5 to 10 minutes but these take just under 2 hours.

The Longji Rice Terraces

Although rice terraces wind their way around mountains throughout China, the Longji Rice Terraces are considered to be the most magnificent of them all. They are located in Longsheng County, about 100 kilometres (62 miles) outside of Guilin, and are sometimes referred to as the Longsheng Rice Terraces. The word “longji” means “dragon’s backbone” and these rice terraces earned their unusual name because the terraced fields climbing up the mountain look like dragons’ scales whilst the summit of the mountain range resembles a dragon’s backbone. This gives you an idea as to the sheer scale of these rice terraces.

These terraced fields were all manmade and were first built during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), although many of them weren’t completed until the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). The majority of them were built over 650 years ago by the Zhuang and Yao ethnic minorities, and are still in use today. They stretch from the riverside right to the summit of the mountains, ranging from between 300 metres to 800 metres above sea level. In some cases, the terraced fields reach heights of approximately 1,100 metres above sea level. They cover a colossal area of 66 square kilometres (25 square miles), which is about three times the size of London Heathrow Airport.

The rice terraces were initially designed to make use of land that was previously thought too difficult to plough. By flattening small surfaces of the mountain, farmers were able to plough them and, via a particularly ingenious irrigation system, pump water into the ploughed fields so that rice could be grown there. This method is still widely used by farmers to this day and the Longji Rice Terraces are no exception. The rice terraces are farmed by the people of Ping’an Village, Longji Ancient Zhuang Village, and the Jinkeng cluster of Red Yao villages. This means that, no matter what season you travel to the rice terraces, you’ll be met with a unique and beautiful sight. When asked which season is the best to visit the terraces, most locals will respond by saying every season is the most beautiful.

In spring, the terraced fields are flooded with water in preparation for the planting of rice seedlings. The crystal clear pools glitter up the sides of the mountain and reflect the flawless blue skies and wandering clouds. In summer, the rice stalks have begun to grow and the mountains are awash with verdant greenery. The lush jade hues of the rice terraces as they trickle down the mountain are amplified by the warm sunlight. In autumn, the rice stalks have turned a golden-brown and are ready to be harvested. The mountains look as though they have been plated with pure gold and rival the magnificence of Beijing’s Forbidden City. In winter, the terraces are left to recover and are covered in a thin blanket of snow. These snowy ribbons running along the mountains resemble white dragons racing each other upstream.

We recommend you plan your visit to the terraces around the seasons so that you get the view you most desire. The terraces are open year round but you do have to pay to enter them. There are three main entrances to the rice terraces: one at Ping’an Village, one at Longji Ancient Zhuang Village, and one at Dazhai Village, which is part of the cluster of Jinkeng villages. From there, you will be given a small pamphlet about the rice terraces and a rudimentary map of the various hikes you can take along them. Most of the paths are well signposted, so you need only follow the maps displayed at various intervals if you happen to lose your map. If you’re still feeling unsure about the hike, you can hire a private guide or, in some cases, there will be some older local women waiting at the entrance who can speak enough English to act as your tour guide.

The hike from Ping’an to the summit takes about 2 hours but the hikes from the Jinkeng cluster of villages can take slightly longer. If you’re feeling adventurous, you can even hike from Ping’an to the Jinkeng villages, which takes about 3 hours. If you plan on spending longer than a day at the rice terraces, then there are some more advanced hikes that can take several hours and will reward you with access to the less tourist oriented parts of the mountains. However, if you plan on taking simply a daytrip to the rice terraces, you need to plan carefully as the last buses to Longsheng leave around 4.30pm, so it is recommended you aim to leave the scenic area by about 3pm.

If you’re having trouble choosing which villages to visit, there’s no need to worry! We’ve dedicated a group of articles to describing the benefits and pitfalls of each of the villages that give access to the rice terraces, from the larger village of Ping’an right through to the small Red Yao village of Huangluo.

Elephant Trunk Hill

If you visit the city of Guilin, you will undoubtedly come across elephants. Whether they are in a business’ logo, a restaurant’s name, or on the front of a travel brochure, elephants have become a symbol of Guilin, and this is all thanks to Elephant Trunk Hill. Locals in Guilin say that if you have been to Elephant Trunk Hill then you have been to Guilin, which shows just how important this natural wonder is to the city and its people. Elephant Trunk Hill (Xiangbi Hill) is a Karst formation that has naturally formed on the western bank of the Li River just outside of Guilin city. It is so named because it looks like a thirsty elephant dipping its trunk into the river to drink. It rises over 55 metres over the waters of the Li River and measures 108 metres in length and 100 metres in width. In the past, it has been referred to by many names, such as “Li Hill”, “Yi Hill”, and “Chenshui Hill”, but it is now widely known as Elephant Trunk Hill.

Between the “trunk” and the “legs” of the elephant, there is a large hole or cave known as Shui Yue or Water Moon Cave. It is a semi-round cave that has been completely penetrated by water, with the Li River flowing directly through it. The cave is 17 metres long, 12 metres high and 9.5 metres wide, meaning visitors can easily pass through the mouth of the cave on foot. Though this stunning cave is undoubtedly a beautiful sight during the day, it becomes most magnificent at dusk and nightfall. When the sun begins to set, the surrounding rock around the Water Moon Cave casts a shadow on the water and light can only pass directly through the cave itself. The light passing through the open mouth of the cave creates a reflection on the water that looks just like a full moon, hence the name “Water Moon Cave”.

This natural phenomenon is unique to Water Moon Cave and has served to inspire Chinese poets and artists throughout the ages. If you travel into the mouth of the cave, you’ll find inscriptions on its walls applauding its beauty that date back to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Among these inscriptions, there is even one by the poet Lu You (1125-1210), who was one of the four great poets of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279).

There is another, smaller cave embedded into the side of Elephant Trunk Hill that is often referred to as Elephant Eye Cave. It is so-called because it goes straight through the hill and is just above the “trunk” of the elephant, making it look like the “eyes” of the elephant. This cave is about 2 metres high, 5 to 10 metres wide and 52 meters long. Visitors can climb Elephant Trunk Hill to Elephant Eye Cave and are rewarded with a panoramic view of the surrounding landscape from the cave. If you’re an avid photographer and are feeling adventurous, we strongly recommend scaling the heights of the hill to reach Elephant Eye Cave, as it provides many unique photographic opportunities.

Far off in the distance, on the elephant’s “back”, you may notice a small pagoda jutting out of the lush greenery. This is a 14 metre-high, two-storey pagoda called Puxian Pagoda, which was built during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). It is dedicated to an enlightened being or bodhisattva from the Buddhist faith known as Samantabhadra or Puxian in Chinese. Some people believe it looks like a beautiful vase on the elephant’s back, while others reckon it looks more like the hilt of a sword, and there is in fact a rather tragic legend behind the placement of this pagoda.

The legend goes that, in ancient times, the Emperor of Heaven decided he wanted to conquer Earth. The Emperor led his troops to Earth while riding on the back of a mystical elephant. However, the strain of carrying the Emperor so far proved too much for the elephant and he became seriously ill. The local farmers nursed the elephant back to health and as a gesture of his immense gratitude the elephant deserted the Emperor and stayed on Earth to helped the farmers plough their fields. On discovering the elephant’s betrayal, the Emperor flew into a murderous rage. One day, when the elephant was drinking from the Li River, the Emperor threw a sword into his back, which turned him to stone. The kind elephant, who is now the Elephant Trunk Hill, is said to still watch over the people of Guilin and welcome visitors to the city he loves so much. The pagoda was built on the site where the sword supposedly landed in the elephant’s back.

79年版伍拾圆-桂林象鼻山

Elephant Trunk Hill Park

In 1986, Elephant Trunk Hill Park was built on the banks of the river surrounding Elephant Trunk Hill. It’s location on the waterfront makes it the perfect place to relax. The park is elephant themed so dotted throughout the park you’ll find adorable stone elephant statues poking their heads out of the water or standing near the paths. The trails that wind throughout the park have been designed so that, from a bird’s eye view, they spell the Chinese character for elephant (象). Just offshore from Elephant Trunk Hill, there is a small island that visitors can access via a stone bridge, which has been delightfully carved and decorated with elephants. This island is called Love Island and, with its peaceful bamboo groves, beautiful stone statues, and ideal view of the river, it’s the perfect place to relax and enjoy some private time with that special someone.

There is also a temple of great cultural significance in the park called Yunfeng Temple, which was built during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). It is just southwest of Elephant Trunk Hill and is ranked as one of the four most famous temples in Guilin city. It had to be rebuilt in 1897 but is none-the-less magnificent. The temple has played an important political role in the area, being both the gathering place for the members of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1850-1864)[1] and one of the safe houses of Sun Yat-sen[2] and his followers during the Revolution of 1911. The temple is now open to the public and exhibits several wonderful historical and cultural artefacts that were found in the Guilin area.

Elephant Trunk Hill is easily accessible by road or by water. You can either take a cruise down the Li River, which will make a stop at Elephant Trunk Hill Park, or you can take one of many public buses from Guilin and get off at the Elephant Trunk Hill Park stop (象山公园站).

[1] Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: An oppositional state in China that was formed from 1851 to 1864 and controlled some parts of southern China during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912).

[2] Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925): A Chinese revolutionary who played an instrumental role in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty, abolishing imperial rule and founding the People’s Republic of China.

Zhaoling Mausoleum

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So utterly stunning is the site of Zhaoling Mausoleum that it has been the subject of Chinese poetry throughout the ages, from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) right through to the present day. The mausoleum itself has been carved into Jiuzong Mountain, about 83 kilometres (52 miles) away from Xi’an city centre. It is sometimes referred to simply as Zhao Mausoleum but is not to be confused with the mausoleum of the second Qing Emperor Huang Taji which shares the same name. Zhaoling Mausoleum was the final resting place of Emperor Taizong, the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty, and his wife, Empress Wende. It is phenomenal in its design, monumental in its scale and it completely revolutionised the way tombs were built during the Tang Dynasty. It is not only the largest Tang Mausoleum in China but is also the largest known royal mausoleum in the whole world. In its former glory, it was once a place that seemed almost ethereal in its grandeur. Nowadays, though it has suffered from the blows of time, it still provides a fascinating insight into the feudal system that led to modern China as we know it today.

Building of the mausoleum began over 1,300 years ago, in 636 A.D., and, although it only officially took 13 years to complete, it was added to and renovated over a period of 107 years. It was the first royal mausoleum to have been built into a mountain face, as oppose to the traditional burial mound on flat land. Supposedly the idea for building the mausoleum on Jiuzong Mountain came when the Empress Wende, being well-known for her humility, was on her deathbed and asked for a simple and frugal burial, saying “please bury me on the mountain and do not heap the grave”.

This gave Emperor Taizong a brilliant idea. He realized that the mountain, which is 1,188 metres above sea level and surrounded by the Jingshui River at its front and the Weishui River at its rear, was not only a magnificent place for a mausoleum but was also acted as a natural protective barrier against thieves and looters. Thus Emperor Taizong masterminded the building of his mausoleum and enlisted the help of the famous Tang technicians and painters Yan Lide and Yan Liben in its design. The mausoleum stretches over 200 square kilometres (88 square miles) and is split into sections above and below ground. The tomb passage alone, which leads to the tomb of Emperor Taizong, is 230 metres long and is guarded by five stone gates. In order to further deter looters from his tomb, Emperor Taizong even went so far as to write an inscription on the outside of the mausoleum which states: “A ruler takes the whole land under Heaven as his home. Why should he keep treasures within his tomb, possessing them as his private property?”. The implication was that the tomb was empty, as Emperor Taizong saw no reason to take his worldly goods to the grave, but this is in fact very far from the truth.

Zhaoling Mausoleum02

The mausoleum has nearly 200 satellite tombs that house famous ministers, members of the royal family and high ranking officials, but these satellite tombs are all further down the mountain than the Emperor’s tomb to symbolise his authority over them. It is the only mausoleum that exhibits the five styles of satellite tombs. Each tomb represents the relationship that the deceased had to the emperor. For example, the tomb of the princesses, the daughters of Emperor Taizong and Empress Wende, are located near to their father’s tomb and have either paired mounds at one end or are topped by a mound in an inverted dipper shape with four earthwork mounds. By contrast, daughters of Emperor Taizong born of concubines are further away from their father’s tomb and have a much simpler structure. This diversity creates a stunning yet surreal landscape that Tang Dynaty poet Du Fu described in his poem “Revisiting Zhaoling Mausoleum” as such:

“A line of tombs winds skyward up the slope

Where mountain beasts keep to their leafy lair;

I peer along a pine and cypress lane

Only clouds of sunset hanging in the air.”

 

Yet these satellite tombs are just the beginning of what was and still is a very lavish affair. Above ground, there once stood a complex that was unmatched in its splendour, including the Xuanwu Gate on the north side, the watchtower, the Zhuque Gate, Xian Hall and the sacrificial altar. This complex was once referred to as a miniature “Imperial City” because of its sheer size. Now all that remains are the Six Steeds of Zhaoling, the base of the sacrificial altar and a stone sparrow ornament from the ridge of the Xian Hall’s roof that is 1.5 metres in height. The size of this stone ornament alone gives you an idea of the scale of the building that once supported it.

The cemetery itself is still covered in the rich green pines, cypresses, huge Chinese scholar trees and poplars that earned it the name “the City of Pines”. The late Tang poet Liu Cang once wrote: “Entering the site of the underground palace along the mountain ridge, you will feel the chill of shady pines as if at midnight”. In this one sentence, Liu Cang captures the otherworldly nature of the mausoleum that makes it a site of such intrigue, even to this day. Though the surface buildings are gone, the mausoleum and the City of Pines still remain, untouched and unfaltering in their surreal majesty.

Zhaoling Mausoleum01Only 37 of the satellite tombs have been excavated, but most of the artifacts that were found in these tombs are exhibited in the Zhaoling Museum. There you will find gorgeous Chinese porcelain, red Chinese pottery, painted pottery, glazed pottery, and tri-coloured glazed pottery from the Tang Dynasty. This pottery often takes the form of figurines, some of which, such as the figurines of ethnic minorities, demonstrate the close relationship that Emperor Taizong had with various ethnic minority groups during his reign. There are even a few glazed camels carrying silk cloth, as they would have done along the Silk Road over a thousand years ago. You’ll also find brightly coloured ancient paintings and murals depicting nobles and their life styles, from their frequent business trips to their leisure time spent singing, dancing and playing games, from ladies-in-waiting to courtiers. The museum houses one of three special official hats, personally made by Emperor Taizong, that were only awarded to the most distinguished courtiers and are incredibly rare.

The Mausoleum and the Museum together present the chance to witness a true tableau of life in Feudal China. To witness the tombs snaking their way up the mountains, to feel the haunting chill of the pine tree cemetery, to gaze upon ancient tombstones hand-written by famous calligraphers, now also in their tombs, is an opportunity that can’t be missed. If you want to embed yourself in history and feel the thrill of living in a time when Emperors ruled and true heroic exploits breathed life to legends, then Zhaoling Mausoleum is the place for you.

The Small Wild Goose Pagoda

The Small Wild Goose Pagoda Scenic Area is made up of three main areas: Jianfu Temple, the Xi’an Museum and the Small Wild Goose Pagoda. The histories of these three buildings are tightly intertwined and this is why they have been grouped together rather than being kept as separate attractions. The Small Wild Goose Pagoda Scenic Area is one of the lesser known tourist attractions in Xi’an and, in spite of its elegance and natural beauty, it rarely attracts large crowds. This, coupled with its peaceful gardens and crystal clear lake, makes it one of the more relaxing sites to visit in the bustling city of Xi’an. Not to mention the fact that, in 2014, UNESCO listed the whole area as a World Heritage Site. Though the museum was only built in 2007, Jianfu Temple and the Small Wild Goose Pagoda both have histories that date back over 1,000 years ago. As a matter of fact, like Da Ci’en Temple, Jianfu Temple was constructed as a gesture of filial piety[1].

The buildings that make up Jianfu Temple were never intended to be a temple when they were first built. In 684 A.D., after his ascension to the throne, Emperor Zhongzong adapted his place of residence into a temple and donated it, subsequently maintaining it so that it could house 200 Buddhist monks. He founded this temple precisely 100 days after the death of his father, Emperor Gaozong, to honour his memory. It was originally named Xianfu Temple, or the Great Monastery of Offered Blessings, but was renamed Jianfu Temple by Empress Wu Zetian in 690 A.D. The Small Wild Goose Pagoda was built later on, sometime between 707 and 709 A.D., and was so-called simply because it was smaller than the Great Wild Goose Pagoda. The pagoda was originally 45 metres (147 ft.) tall and 15 storeys high but was damaged by the same earthquake as the Great Wild Goose Pagoda in 1556 and is now only 43 metres (141 ft.) tall and 13 storeys high. Unlike the Great Wild Goose Pagoda, each storey on the Small Wild Goose Pagoda diminishes in width as it rises, giving it its iconic curved appearance. However, like many pagodas from the Tang Dynasty (618-907), it is archetypally square shaped. During the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist monks would bring Buddhist scriptures and sutras[2] from India to the temple and the pagoda to be translated.

mhrf_dspd16852Astoundingly, even in ancient times, architects had the foresight to make the base of the Small Wild Goose Pagoda out of packed earth and built it into a hemispherical shape. This meant that during earthquakes the tremors were distributed evenly throughout the base of the temple and the pagoda subsequently survived 70 earthquakes virtually unharmed. Interestingly enough, in 1487 a colossal earthquake sent a crack all the way up the pagoda, from top to bottom, and this crack was supposedly a third of a metre wide. Yet remarkably, in 1521, a subsequent earthquake appeared to seal the crack entirely. Years later, however, it was discovered that the crack had not healed but had merely become less visible and so, in 1965, the pagoda underwent extensive repairs. Today you’ll find, when you enter the pagoda, that the second, fifth, seventh, ninth and eleventh storeys have been reinforced with steel girders, although these have been cleverly hidden, and facilities have been set up on the roof so that it now has a lightning rod and is better protected from rain.

So there’s more than meets the eye in this peaceful, tourist haven. The pagoda and temple are not only wonderful relics of history in of themselves; they also house several artefacts that have been dug up around the city. You’ll definitely want to stop off and visit the Ancient Bell, which is in the Bell Pavilion and has been preserved in its original condition since 1192. The bell weighs approximately 8,000 kilograms and has more than a thousand characters engraved on its surface. In 1993 it had to be repaired and welded, as it was damaged during the Cultural Revolution, but it has remained virtually unchanged since then. It was said that, back when the bell was first forged, its ring was so deafening that it echoed throughout the city. In 1998, in light of its popularity, another bell was forged that visitors are allowed to hit, in order to simulate the experience of hitting the original bell.

Nestled within Jianfu Temple, near the Small White Goose Pagoda, you’ll also find the 10 Ancient Pagoda Trees, which are all over 1,000 years old. They are surrounded by ancient stone carvings, which were once part of house gates, and ancient hitching posts for horses. These hitching posts are just upright pillars with various carvings on top, including carvings of mythological creatures, deities and auspicious symbols. In the temple, all of the hitching posts have been placed together to form what looks like a stunning stone forest. This is a fantastic place to take photographs as it is both beautiful and surreal.

On top of all of these wondrous historical artefacts, the Xi’an Museum boasts nearly 130,000 relics that all relate to the history of Ancient China and Xi’an specifically. Most of these relics have been unearthed from tombs in the surrounding area. There you’ll find stunning jade ornaments, Buddhist statues, stone carvings, porcelain figures, famous pieces of calligraphy, and paintings. There is also a small exhibition hall beside the museum that is dedicated to displaying paintings by Huxian County farmers. These paintings are particularly famous because they focus on portraying ordinary aspects of country life and are made using any artistic medium that was available to the farmer, including everyday objects such as newspapers.

If this isn’t enough to draw you in, the Small Wild Goose Pagoda regularly hosts a Chinese calligraphy class where visitors can learn the meanings behind various Chinese characters, and where you may even learn how to write a few characters yourself! What could be a better souvenir than a beautiful piece of calligraphy that was hand painted by you? In short, though the Small Wild Goose Pagoda Scenic Area may be one of the smaller attractions in Xi’an, this simply adds to its charm and makes it a wonderful distraction from the bustle of the city, a place where you can just unwind, relax and truly enjoy Chinese history.

[1] Filial Piety: the concept of being devoted to and respectful of ones parents and elders. It is particularly important in Chinese culture.

[2] Sutra: One of the sermons of the historical Buddha

Wu Zetian

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Wu Zetian (624-705) is considered one of the most controversial figures in Chinese history. She broke many customary precedents during her rise to power and even established her own dynasty, which she named the Zhou Dynasty (690-705). She was the first and only woman to have ever ruled China. Her reign was described by historian Liu Xu[1] thusly: “Heaven and earth became like a huge cage, and even if one could escape it, where could he go?”. Her system of secret spies and her ruthlessness in disposing of political rivals led to a reign of terror that is echoed in Liu Xu’s comment. Yet there’s more to her story than meets the eye. In order to understand Wu Zetian as a political figure, you must first delve into the changeable accounts of her history, and then decide for yourself what manner of person she was.

Early Life

Wu Zetian was originally born Wu Zhao in 624 A.D but the location of her birth is still unknown. Her family originated from Wenshui, Bingzhou (modern-day Wenshui County, Shanxi). Her father, Wu Shihuo, was involved in the timber business and her mother was from the influential Yang family. Compared to other families at the time, Wu Zhao’s family were considerably well-off and so, thanks to the family’s servants, she enjoyed much leisure time. Her father encouraged her to use this time to educate herself, which was incredibly unusual for a woman at that time. Wu focused her attention on studying politics, writing, literature and music. Thanks to these efforts, she became known for her intelligence and wit.

On his travels the nobleman Li Yuan would often stay with the Wu family. Li Yuan eventually overthrew Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty and established the Tang Dynasty, adopting the regnal name Emperor Gaozu. After his ascension to the throne he was incredibly generous to the Wu family. He even bestowed a succession of senior ministerial posts on Wu Shihou. This relationship was significant as it was the first connection the Wu family established with the royal Tang family.

When Wu Zhao was only fourteen years old, she became a concubine of Emperor Taizong, Emperor Gaozu’s son. Among the concubines, she held the title of cairen[2]. However, it appears she was not terribly well-favoured by Emperor Taizong and did not bear him any children. This meant that, according to tradition, on his death she was consigned to Ganye Temple and was supposed to live out the rest of her life as a Buddhist nun. Yet Wu Zhao somehow made her way out of the convent and back into the imperial palace.

Wu ZetianRise to Power

Historians are unsure as to how Wu Zhao left the convent, but sometime in the 650s Wu Zhao found herself back in the imperial palace as Emperor Gaozong’s concubine and was thereby known as Consort Wu. In 652 she gave birth to her first son, Li Hong, and in the next year she gave birth to her second son, Li Xián. This succession of sons, along with Consort Wu’s natural charm and beauty, swiftly made her the favourite of Emperor Gaozong. In light of this, Empress Wang and the Emperor’s previous favourite, Consort Xiao, started conspiring against her.

In 654, Consort Wu gave birth to a daughter, but the infant tragically died. Evidence suggests the child’s death was caused by deliberate strangulation. Consort Wu accused Empress Wang of murdering the child, backing up her allegations with eyewitness accounts. Empress Wang was childless, meaning she may have been jealous of Consort Wu, and she lacked a sound alibi. The death of this child played an important part in Consort Wu’s rise to power, as it encouraged Emperor Gaozong’s eventual decision to depose Empress Wang. Some historians believe that Consort Wu may have even strangled the child herself and then framed Empress Wang. The most likely explanation, considering the poor ventilation system in the palace, is that the child died of asphyxiation.

In 655, in spite of opposition from his chancellors, Emperor Gaozong deposed Empress Wang and replaced her with Consort Wu. He then had Empress Wang and Consort Xiao imprisoned. Later that year, when Emperor Gaozong showed signs of releasing them, Empress Wu had Empress Wang and Consort Xiao executed. It was said that, from then on, she was haunted by them in her dreams.

From 657 onwards, Empress Wu began a campaign against any official who opposed her. She would have associates falsely accuse her political rivals and then subsequently depose, exile, or execute them, or force them to commit suicide.

In 660, Emperor Gaozong’s health began to deteriorate. He suffered from painful headaches and loss of vision, which some historians believe was the result of Empress Wu slowly poisoning him. Emperor Gaozong’s ill-health prevented him from ruling effectively, so he allowed Empress Wu to make some rulings on his behalf. Empress Wu proved herself to be a competent politician, making quick and astute judgements on matters of state.

By 664, Empress Wu’s influence on the governance of the country had angered Emperor Gaozong so much that he had Chancellor Shangguan Yi draft an edict for her deposition. Empress Wu pleaded with Emperor Gaozong, who relented. Shangguan was subsequently executed and, from then on, Empress Wu would sit behind a curtain beside Emperor Gaozong and give him advice during imperial meetings.

Thereafter, Li Hong pleaded with his mother to cease influencing his father’s governance of the country. Historians generally believe that Li Hong’s death in 675 was the result of poisoning by his mother. After Li Hong’s death, Li Xián was created crown prince but this title was to be short-lived. Empress Wu formally accused Li Xián of treason in 680 and he was deposed, exiled and forced to commit suicide by Empress Wu. His brother, Li Zhe, was made crown prince.

The Zhou Dynasty

In 683, Emperor Gaozong suffered a fatal stroke. Li Zhe (Emperor Zhongzong) ascended the throne but his reign only lasted six weeks. After his disobedience became too much, Empress Wu deposed and exiled him. She replaced him with his younger brother, Li Dan (Emperor Ruizong).

From then on, Empress Wu took charge of governing the country. From 688 onwards, she began systematically hunting down and massacring members of the Li family. In 690, she forced Emperor Ruizong to yield, usurped the throne and established the Zhou Dynasty. She summoned Li Zhe back from exile and named him her heir apparent.

Tragically, in court her cruelty intensified. She even forced two of her grandchildren to commit suicide after a discussion they had about her affair with the Zhang brothers was leaked. When Empress Wu fell ill in 704, she only allowed the Zhang brothers to see her, which led to rumours that they were plotting to usurp the throne.

By 705 these rumours became such a growing concern that, when the Empress fell ill again, a few of the chancellors and Li Zhe plotted a coup. They managed to execute both of the Zhang brothers and subsequently surrounded Wu Zetian in Changsheng Hall, forcing her to surrender. She was made to pass the throne to Li Zhe, who retained his regnal title of Emperor Zhongzong and restored the Tang Dynasty. Later that year, Empress Wu Zetian passed away and Emperor Zhongzong had her remains interred in Qianling Mausoleum alongside her husband.

Throughout her political career, Empress Wu killed numerous potential rivals, including members of her own family. Yet, outside of the palace, she implemented great social change, lowered taxes, supported the development of the fine arts, raised the status of women, and expanded the Chinese Empire. Though it was true she was tyrannical and obsessive in her thirst for power, she was no more violent than many of the emperors before her. It is arguably her gender that has brought attention to acts that would have been perfectly normal for a male emperor and would have gone largely unnoticed. To her subjects, she was regarded as a capable and astute emperor. In her own will she stated: “My achievements and errors must be evaluated by later generations”. Therefore it is up to you to decide precisely what kind of person she was.

 

 

[1] Liu Xu (888-947): Chinese official and historian. Lead editor of the Old Book of Tang.

[2] Cairen: The fifth rank in the Tang Dynasty’s nine-rank system of officials and concubines